Constitution of India (Bhāratīya Saṃvidhāna) Important Questions, facts

संवैधानिक विकास एवं संविधान निर्माण

संवैधानिक विकास

रेग्युलेटिंग एक्ट, 1773

• 1773 के एक्ट के द्वारा भारत में कंपनी के कार्यों में ब्रिटिश संसद का हस्तक्षेप व नियंत्रण प्रारंभ हुआ।

• इस अधिनियम द्वारा बंगाल (कलकत्ता) में एक उच्चतम न्यायालय की स्थापना की गयी ।

• मद्रास तथा बम्बई प्रेसीडेंसियों को बंगाल प्रेसीडेन्सी के अधीन कर दिया गया तथा बंगाल के गवर्नर जनरल को तीनों प्रेसीडेन्सियों का गवर्नर जनरल बना दिया गया।

 पिट्स इंडिया अधिनियम 1784

● भारत में गवर्नर जनरल की परिषद् की संख्या 4 से कम करके 3 कर दी गयी । 

• इंग्लैंड में 6 आयुक्तों ( कमिश्नरों) के एक 'नियंत्रक बोर्ड' की स्थापना की गयी, जिसे भारत में अंग्रेजी अधिकृत क्षेत्र पर पूरा अधि कार दिया गया। इसे 'बोर्ड ऑफ कन्ट्रोल' के नाम से जाना गया। 

1833 का चार्टर अधिनियम

• बंगाल के गवर्नर जनरल को सम्पूर्ण भारत का गवर्नर जनरल घोषित किया गया। सम्पूर्ण भारत का प्रथम गवर्नर जनरल लॉर्ड विलियम बेंटिक बना।

1853 का राजपत्र - भारतीय शासन के इतिहास में अंतिम चार्टर एक्ट

- ब्रिटिश संसद को किसी भी समय कम्पनी भारतीय शासन को समाप्त करने का अधिकार प्रदान किया गया। 

- कार्यकारिणी परिषद् के कानून सदस्य को परिषद् का पूर्ण सदस्य का दर्जा प्रदान किया गया।

- बंगाल के लिए पृथक गवर्नर की नियुक्ति की व्यवस्था की गई।

1858 का अधिनियम

•  भारत में कम्पनी के शासन को समाप्त कर शासन का उत्तरदायित्व ब्रिटिश संसद को सौंप दिया गया
• अब भारत का शासन ब्रिटिश सम्राज्ञी की ओर से राज्य सचिव को चलाना था, जिसकी सहायता के लिए 15 सदस्यीय भारत परिषद् का गठन किया गया।
• भारत के गवर्नर जनरल का नाम 'वायसराय' कर दिया गया तथा उसे भारत सचिव की आज्ञा के अनुसार कार्य करने के लिए बाध्य किया गया।
• इस प्रकार भारत का प्रथम वायसराय लार्ड कैनिंग बना।

भारतीय परिषद् अधिनियम 1861

• गवर्नर जनरल की विधान परिषद् की संख्या में वृद्धि की गयी। अब इस परिषद् में कम से कम 6 तथा अधिकतम 12 सदस्य हो सकते थे। उनमें कम-से-कम आधे सदस्यों का गैर-सरकारी होना जरूरी था। 3 

शाही उपाधि अधिनियम, 1876

•  28 अप्रैल, 1876 को एक घोषणा द्वारा महारानी विक्टोरिया को 'भारत की साम्राज्ञी' घोषित किया। 

1892 ई. का भारत परिषद् अधिनियम

• • इस अधिनियम की मुख्य विशेषताएँ हैं- 1. अप्रत्यक्ष चुनाव प्रणाली की शुरूआत हुई, 2, इसके द्वारा राजस्व एवं व्यय अथवा बजट पर बहस करने तथा कार्यकारिणी से प्रश्न पूछने की शक्ति दी गई।

भारतीय परिषद् अधिनियम, 1909

• 1909 ई. में नया अधिनियम पारित किया गया जिसे भारतीय परिषद अधिनियम 1909 और 'मार्ले-मिन्टो सुधार' के नाम से जाना गया। 
• गवर्नर जनरल की कार्यकारिणी में एक भारतीय सदस्य को नियुक्त करने की व्यवस्था की गयी। प्रथम भारतीय सदस्य के रूप में सत्येन्द्र सिन्हा की नियुक्ति हुई ।
• 1909 ई. में लॉर्ड मॉर्ले इंग्लैंड में भारत के राज्य सचिव थे और लॉर्ड मिंटो भारत के वायसराय।
• पहली बार मुस्लिम समुदाय के लिए पृथक् प्रतिनिधित्व का उपबन्ध किया गया। इसके अन्तर्गत मुस्लिम सदस्यों का चुनाव मुस्लिम मतदाता ही कर सकते थे।
• केन्द्रीय और प्रान्तीय विधान परिषदों को पहली बार बजट पर वाद-विवाद करने, सार्वजनिक हित के विषयों पर प्रस्ताव पेश करने, पूरक प्रश्न पूछने और मत देने का अधिकार मिला। -

भारतीय परिषद अधिनियम, 1919

• आठ प्रमुख प्रांतों में ‘द्वैध शासन' की एक नयी पद्धति शुरू की गयी। प्रांतीय सूची के विषयों को दो भागों में बाँटा गया- सुरक्षित विषय और हस्तांतरित विषय। (द्वैध शासन के जनक प्रांतों में 'लियोनस कार्टियस' थे।)
• केन्द्रीय विधान परिषद् का स्थान राज्य परिषद् ( उच्च सदन) तथा केन्द्रिय विधान सभा (निम्न सदन) वाले द्विसदनीय विधान मंडल ने ले लिया।
•  माण्टेग्यू-चेम्सफोर्ड सुधार (भारत शासन अधिनियम-1919) द्वारा भारत में पहली बार महिलाओं को वोट देने का अधिकार मिला। राज्य परिषद् के सदस्यों की संख्या 60 थी। जिसमें 34 निर्वाचित होते थे और उनका कार्यकाल 5 वर्षों का होता था। केन्द्रीय विधान सभा  के सदस्यों की संख्या 144 थी, जिनमें 104 निर्वाचित तथा 40 मनोनीत होते थे। 

अधिनियम 1935 भारत सरकार

• •इस अधिनियम द्वारा अखिल भारतीय संघ का प्रावधान किया गया।
• संघ तथा केन्द्र के बीच शक्तियों का विभाजन किया गया। विभिन्न विषयों की तीन सूचियाँ बनायी गयीं- संघीय सूची, प्रांतीय सूची और समवर्ती सूची।
• 'प्रांतों में द्वैध शासन को समाप्त कर प्रांतीय स्वायत्ता के सिद्धान्त को स्वीकार किया गया। 1919 के अधिनियम द्वारा जो द्वैध शासन प्रांतों में लागू किया गया था, उसे केन्द्र में लागू किया गया । केन्द्रीय सरकार के विषयों को दो भागों में विभाजित किया गया - संरक्षित विषय और हस्तांतरित विषय | संरक्षित विषय गवर्नर जनरल के अधिकार क्षेत्र में था, जबकि हस्तांतरित विषयों का शासन मंत्रिपरिषद को सौंपा गया।
•  इस अधिनियम के अधीन बर्मा को भारत से अलग कर दिया गया और ओडिशा तथा सिन्ध नाम से दो नये प्रांत बना दिए गए।
•  इस अधिनियम द्वारा एक संघीय बैंक और संघीय न्यायालय की स्थापना का भी प्रावधान किया गया।

भारतीय स्वतन्त्रता अधिनियम 1947

• • ब्रिटिश संसद में 4 जुलाई, 1947 ई. को भारतीय स्वतंत्रता अधिनियम प्रस्तावित किया गया, जो 18 जुलाई, 1947 ई. को स्वीकृत हो गया। इस अधिनियम के प्रमुख प्रावधान निम्न हैं - 

1. दो अधिराज्यों की स्थापना : 15 अगस्त, 1947 ई. को भारत एवं पाकिस्तान नामक दो अधिराज्य बना दिए जाएँगे, सत्ता का उत्तरदायित्व दोनों अधिराज्यों की संविधान सभा को सौंपा जाएगा। 

2. भारत एवं पाकिस्तान दोनों अधिराज्यों में एक-एक गवर्नर जनरल होंगे। 

3. जब तक संविधान सभाएँ संविधान का निर्माण नहीं कर लेती, तब तक संविधान सभाएँ विधान मण्डल के रूप में कार्य करती रहेंगी। 

4. भारत मंत्री का पद समाप्त कर दिया जाएगा। 

5. 1935 के भारतीय शासन अधिनियम द्वारा शासन संविधान सभा द्वारा नया संविधान बनाकर तैयार नहीं किया जाता है, तब तक होगा। 

6. देशी रियासतों को भारत या पाकिस्तान किसी भी अधिराज्य में सम्मिलित होने और अपने भावी संबंधों को निश्चित करने की स्वतंत्रता प्रदान की गयी । "

संविधान की अनुसूचियाँ

भारतीय संविधान में शुरू में 8 अनुसूचियाँ थीं परन्तु वर्तमान में इसकी संख्या 12 हो गयी है।

• पहली अनुसूची-भारतीय संघ, राज्य एवं संघीय क्षेत्र का वर्णन
• दूसरी अनुसूची- वेतन, भत्ते, पेंशन
• तीसरी अनुसूची- शपथ
• चौथी अनुसूची- राज्य सभा में राज्यों एवं संघ क्षेत्र का प्रतिनिधित्व
• पाँचवीं अनुसूची- SC, ST का प्रशासन
• छठी अनुसूची- असम, मेघालय, त्रिपुरा एवं मिजोरम राज्यों का प्रशासन
• सातवीं अनुसूची - संघ सूची ( 97 विषय), राज्य सूची ( 66 विषय ) एवं समवर्ती सूची ( 47 विषय) का वर्णन। 
• आठवीं अनुसूची- 22 भाषाओं का उल्लेख
• नवीं अनुसूची सम्पत्ति अधिग्रहण (पहला संशोधन, 1951) -
• दसवीं अनुसूची- दल-बदल कानून (52 वां संशोधन, 1985)
• 11वीं अनुसूची- पंचायती राज ( 73वां संशोधन, 1993 )
• 12वीं अनुसूची- नगर निकाय (74वां संशोधन, 1994 )

संविधान के कुछ महत्त्वपूर्ण अनुच्छेद

अनुच्छेद 1 : यह घोषणा करता है कि भारत राज्यों का संघ है।

अनुच्छेद 3 : संसद विधि द्वारा नए राज्य बना सकती है तथा पहले से अवस्थित राज्यों के क्षेत्रों, सीमाओं एवं नामों में परिवर्तन कर सकती है। 

भारतीय संविधान के भाग II ( अनुच्छेद 5-11 तक) में नागरिकता सम्बन्धी प्रावधान दिए गए हैं। 

भारतीय संविधान के भाग III में (अनुच्छेद 12 से अनुच्छेद 35 तक) मौलिक अधिकारों का वर्णन किया गया है। 

अनुच्छेद 17 के तहत अस्पृश्यता का अन्त कर दिया गया है। यदि कोई इसे अपने जीवन में अपनाता है या ऐसी भावना प्रकट करता है तो उसे दण्डनीय अपराध घोषित किया गया हैं।

 अनुच्छेद 21 (क) राज्य 6 से 14 वर्ष के बच्चों को निःशुल्क एवं अनिवार्य शिक्षा उपलब्ध कराएगा ( 86वाँ संविधान संशोधन, 2002) । 

 भारतीय संविधान के भाग- IV के अनुच्छेद 36-51 में राज्य के लिए नीति-निर्देशित करने वाले तत्वों का उल्लेख किया गया है। 

अनुच्छेद 44 राज्य से अपेक्षा करता है कि वह सभी नागरिकों के लिए एक समान सिविल संहिता का निर्माण करें।

 अनुच्छेद 53: संघ की कार्यपालिका संबंधी शक्ति राष्ट्रपति में निहित रहेगी। 

अनुच्छेदं 61 : राष्ट्रपति के ऊपर महाभियोग की प्रक्रिया |

 अनुच्छेद 64 : उपराष्ट्रपति राज्यसभा का पदेन अध्यक्ष होगा।

अनुच्छेद 76 : राष्ट्रपति द्वारा महान्यायवादी की नियुक्ति की जाएगी।

अनुच्छेद 108 : यदि किसी विधेयक के सम्बन्ध में दोनों सदनों में गतिरोध उत्पन्न हो गया हो तो संयुक्त अधिवेशन का प्रावधान है।

अनुच्छेद 110  धन विधेयक को इसमें परिभाषित किया गया है।

 अनुच्छेद 112 : प्रत्येक वित्तीय वर्ष हेतु राष्ट्रपति द्वारा संसद के समक्ष बजट पेश किया जाएगा। 

अनुच्छेद 123: संसद के अवकाश ( सत्र नहीं चलने की स्थिति) में राष्ट्रपति को अध्यादेश जारी करने का अधिकार 

अनुच्छेद 124 : इसके अंतर्गत सर्वोच्च न्यायालय के गठन का वर्णन है।

अनुच्छेद 129 : सर्वोच्च न्यायालय एक अभिलेख न्यायालय है। 

अनुच्छेद 148 : नियंत्रक एवं महालेखा परीक्षक की नियुक्ति राष्ट्रपति द्वारा की जाएगी। 

अनुच्छेद 169 : राज्यों में विधान परिषदों की रचना उनकी समाप्ति विधान सभा द्वारा बहुमत से पारित प्रस्ताव तथा संसद द्वारा इसकी स्वीकृति से संभव है।

अनुच्छेद 213 : राज्य विधायिका के सत्र में नहीं रहने पर राज्यपाल अध्यादेश जारी कर सकता है।

अनुच्छेद 214 : सभी राज्यों के लिए उच्च न्यायालय की व्यवस्था होगी।

अनुच्छेद 226 : मूल अधिकारों के प्रवर्तन के लिए उच्च न्यायालय को लेख जारी करने की शक्तियाँ।

अनुच्छेद 248 : विधि निर्माण सम्बन्धी अवशिष्ट शक्तियाँ संसद में निहित है।

अनुच्छेद 249 : राज्य सभा विशेष बहुमत द्वारा राज्य सूची के किसी विषय पर लोकसभा को एक वर्ष के लिए कानून बनाने अधिकृत कर सकती है, यदि वह इसे राष्ट्रहित में आवश्यक समझे।

अनुच्छेद 263 : केंद्र-राज्य संबंधों में विवादों का समाधान करने एवं परस्पर सहयोग के क्षेत्रों के विकास के उद्देश्य से राष्ट्रपति एक अंतर्राज्यीय परिषद् की स्थापना कर सकता है।

अनुच्छेद 280 : राष्ट्रपति हर पाँचवें वर्ष एक वित्त आयोग की स्थापना करेगा।

अनुच्छेद 312 : राज्य सभा विशेष बहुमत द्वारा नई अखिल भारतीय सेवाओं की स्थापना की अनुशंसा कर सकती है। 

अनुच्छेद 315 : संघ एवं राज्यों के लिए एक लोक सेवा आयोग की स्थापना की जाएगी।

अनुच्छेद 324 : चुनावों के पर्यवेक्षण, निर्देशन एवं नियंत्रण सम्बन्धी समस्त शक्तियाँ चुनाव आयोग में निहित रहेंगी।

 अनुच्छेद 326 : लोक सभा तथा विधान सभाओं में चुनाव वयस्क मताधिकार के आधार पर होगा । 

अनुच्छेद 331 : आंग्ल- भारतीय समुदाय के लोगों का राष्ट्रपति द्वारा लोक सभा में मनोनयन संभव है, यदि वह समझे कि उनका उचित प्रतिनिधित्व नहीं है।

अनुच्छेद 332: अनुसूचित जाति एवं जनजातियों का विधानसभाओं में आरक्षण का प्रावधान ।

अनुच्छेद 333 : आंग्ल भारतीय समुदाय के लोगों का विधान सभाओं में मनोनयन।

अनुच्छेद 335 : अनुसूचित जातियों, जनजातियों एवं पिछड़े वर्गों के लिए विभिन्न सेवाओं में पदों पर आरक्षण का प्रावधान 

अनुच्छेद 343 : संघ की आधिकारिक भाषा देवनागरी लिपि में लिखी गई हिंदी होगी। 

अनुच्छेद 351 : यह संघ का कर्त्तव्य होगा कि वह हिंदी भाषा का प्रसार एवं उत्थान करे ताकि वह भारत की मिश्रित संस्कृति के सभी अंगों के लिए अभिव्यक्ति का माध्यम बने।

अनुच्छेद 352 : राष्ट्रपति द्वारा आपात स्थिति की घोषणा, यदि वह समझता हो कि भारत या उसके किसी भाग की बाह्य आक्रमण या सैन्य विद्रोह के फलस्वरूप खतरे में है। सुरक्षा युद्ध,

अनुच्छेद 356 : यदि किसी राज्य के राज्यपाल द्वारा राष्ट्रपति को यह रिपोर्ट दी जाए कि उस राज्य में संवैधानिक तंत्र असफल हो गया है तो वहाँ राष्ट्रपति शासन लागू किया जा सकता है।

अनुच्छेद 360 : यदि राष्ट्रपति यह समझता है कि भारत या इसके किसी भाग की वित्तीय स्थिरता एवं साख खतरे में है तो वह वित्तीय आपात स्थिति की घोषणा कर सकता है।

अनुच्छेद 368 : संसद को संविधान के किसी भी भाग का संशोधन करने का अधिकार है। •

अनुच्छेद 370 : इसके अन्तर्गत जम्मू कश्मीर की विशेष स्थिति का वर्णन है। 

अनुच्छेद 371 : कुछ राज्यों के विशेष क्षेत्रों के विकास के लिए राष्ट्रपति बोर्ड स्थापित कर सकता है; जैसे- महाराष्ट्र, गुजरात, नागालैंड, मणिपुर आदि।

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THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY

1. Name and territory of the Union.—(1) India, that is Bharat, shall be  a Union of States.

[(2) The States and the territories thereof shall be as specified in the First Schedule.]

(3) The territory of India shall comprise—

(a) the territories of the States;

(b) the Union territories specified in the First Schedule; and]

(c) such other territories as may be acquired.

2. Admission or establishment of new States.—Parliament may by law admit into the Union, or establish, new States on such terms and conditions as it thinks fit.

2A. [Sikkim to be associated with the Union.].—Omitted by the

Constitution (Thirty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1975, s. 5 (w.e.f. 26-4-1975).]

3. Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries, or names of existing States.—Parliament may by law—

(a) form a new State by separation of territory from any State or by uniting two or more States or parts of States or by uniting any territory to a part of any State;

(b) increase the area of any State;

(c) diminish the area of any State;

(d) alter the boundaries of any State;

(e) alter the name of any State

[Provided that no Bill for the purpose shall be introduced in either House of Parliament except on the recommendation of the President and unless, where the proposal contained in the Bill affects the area, boundaries, or name of any of the States the Bill has been referred by the President to the Legislature of that State for expressing its views thereon within such period as may be specified in the reference or within such further period as the President may allow and the period so specified or allowed has expired.]

3[Explanation I.—In this article, in clauses (a) to (e), “State” includes a Union territory, but in the proviso, “State” does not include a Union territory.

Explanation II.—The power conferred on Parliament by clause (a) includes the power to form a new State or Union territory by uniting a part of any State or Union territory to any other State or Union territory.]

4. Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amendment of the First and the Fourth Schedules and supplemental, incidental, and consequential matters.—

(1) Any law referred to in article 2 or article 3 shall contain such provisions for the amendment of the First Schedule and the Fourth Schedule as may be necessary to give effect to the provisions of the law and may also contain such supplemental, incidental and consequential provisions (including provisions as to representation in Parliament and in the Legislature or Legislatures of the State or States affected by such law) as Parliament may deem necessary.

(2) No such law as aforesaid shall be deemed to be an amendment of this Constitution for the purposes of article 368.

CITIZENSHIP

5. Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution.—At the commencement of this Constitution, every person who has his domicile in the territory of India and—
(a) who was born in the territory of India; or
(b) either of whose parents were born in the territory of India; or
(c) who has been ordinarily resident in the territory of India for
not less than five years immediately preceding such commencement, shall be a citizen of India.

6. Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan.—Notwithstanding anything in article 5, a person who has migrated to the territory of India from the territory now included in Pakistan shall be deemed to be a citizen of India at the commencement of this Constitution if—

(a) he or either of his parents or any of his grand-parents was born in India, as defined in the Government of India Act, 1935 (as originally enacted); and

(b)(i) in the case where such person has so migrated before the nineteenth day of July 1948, he has been ordinarily resident in the territory of India since the date of his migration, or

(ii) in the case where such person has so migrated on or after the nineteenth day of July 1948, he has been registered as a citizen of India by an officer appointed on that behalf by the Government of the Dominion of India on an application made by him therefor to such officer before the commencement of this Constitution in the form and manner prescribed by that Government:

Provided that no person shall be so registered unless he has been resident

in the territory of India for at least six months immediately preceding the date

of his application.

7. Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan.— Notwithstanding anything in articles 5 and 6, a person who has after the first day of March 1947, migrated from the territory of India to the territory now included in Pakistan shall not be deemed to be a citizen of India:

Provided that nothing in this article shall apply to a person who, after having so migrated to the territory now included in Pakistan, has returned to the territory of India under a permit for resettlement or permanent return issued by or under the authority of any law and every such person shall for the purposes of clause (b) of Article 6 be deemed to have migrated to the territory of India after the nineteenth day of July 1948.

8. Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin residing outside India.—Notwithstanding anything in article 5, any person who or either of whose parents or any of whose grandparents was born in India as defined in the Government of India Act, 1935 (as originally enacted), and who is ordinarily residing in any country outside India as so defined shall be deemed to be a citizen of India if he has been registered as a citizen of India by the diplomatic or consular representative of India in the country where he is for the time being residing on an application made by him therefor to such diplomatic or consular representative, whether before or after the commencement of this Constitution, in the form and manner prescribed by the Government of the Dominion of India or the Government of India.

9. Persons voluntarily acquire citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens.— No person shall be a citizen of India by virtue of article 5 or be deemed to be a citizen of India by virtue of article 6 or article 8 if he has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of any foreign State.

10. Continuance of the rights of citizenship.—Every person who is or is deemed to be a citizen of India under any of the foregoing provisions of this Part shall, subject to the provisions of any law that may be made by Parliament, continue to be such citizen.

11. Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law.—Nothing in the foregoing provisions of this Part shall derogate from the power of Parliament to make any provision with respect to the acquisition and termination of citizenship and all other matters relating to citizenship.

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

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PART III
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
General

 In this Part, unless the context otherwise requires, “the State” includes the Government and Parliament of India and the Government and the Legislature of each of the States and all local or other authorities within the territory of India or under the control of the Government of India.

13. Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights.—(1) All laws in force in the territory of India immediately before the commencement of this Constitution, in so far as they are inconsistent with the provisions of this Part, shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void.

(2) The State shall not make any law which takes away or abridges the rights conferred by this Part and any law made in contravention of this clause shall, to the extent of the contravention, be void.

(3) In this article, unless the context otherwise requires,— (a) “law” includes any Ordinance, order, bye-law, rule, regulation, notification, custom, or usage having in the territory of India the force of

law; (b) “laws in force” includes laws passed or made by a Legislature or other competent authority in the territory of India before the commencement of this Constitution and not previously repealed,

notwithstanding that any such law or any part thereof may not be then in operation either at all or in particular areas.

[(4) Nothing in this article shall apply to any amendment of this Constitution made under the article.  

 Right to Equality

14. Equality before law.—The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of

India.

15. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.—(1) The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth, or any of them.

(2) No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth, or any of them, be subject to any disability, liability, restriction, or condition with regard to—

a) access to shops, public restaurants, hotels, and places of public entertainment; or
(b) the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads, and places of public resort maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public.
(3) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for women and children.
[(4) Nothing in this article or in clause (2) of Article 29 shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.]
[(5) Nothing in this article or in sub-clause (g) of clause (1) of Article 19 shall prevent the State from making any special provision, by law, for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes or the Scheduled Tribes in so far as such special provisions relate to their admission to educational institutions including private educational institutions, whether aided or unaided by the State, other than the minority educational institutions referred to in clause (1) of Article 30.]
[(6) Nothing in this article or sub-clause (g) of clause (1) of Article 19 or clause (2) of Article 29 shall prevent the State from making,—
(a) any special provision for the advancement of any economically weaker sections of citizens other than the classes mentioned in clauses (4) and (5); and

 (b) any special provision for the advancement of any economically weaker sections of citizens other than the classes mentioned in clauses (4) and (5) in so far as such special provisions relate to their admission to educational institutions including private educational institutions, whether aided or unaided by the State, other than the minority educational institutions referred to in clause (1) of Article 30, which in the case of reservation would be in addition to the existing reservations and subject to a maximum of ten percent. of the total seats in each category.

Explanation.—For the purposes of this article and article 16, "economically weaker sections" shall be such as may be notified by the State from time to time on the basis of family income and other indicators of economic disadvantage.]

16. Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.—(1) There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State.
(2) No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence, or any of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated against in respect of, any employment or office under the State.
(3) Nothing in this article shall prevent Parliament from making any law prescribing, in regard to a class or classes of employment or appointment to an office [under the Government of, or any local or other authority within, a State or Union territory, any requirement as to residence within that State or Union territory] prior to such employment or appointment.

(4) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any backward class of citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the State.
2[(4A) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provision for reservation 3 [in matters of promotion, with consequential seniority, to any class] or classes of posts in the services under the State in favour of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes which, in the opinion of the State, are not adequately represented in the services under the State.]
4[(4B) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from considering any unfilled vacancies of a year that are reserved for being filled up in that year in accordance with any provision for reservation made under clause (4) or clause (4A) as a separate class of vacancies to be filled up in any succeeding year or years and such class of vacancies shall not be considered together with the vacancies of the year in which they are being filled up for determining the ceiling of fifty percent. reservation on the total number of vacancies of that year.]

(5) Nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any law which provides that the incumbent of an office in connection with the affairs of any religious or denominational institution or any member of the governing body thereof shall be a person professing a particular religion or belonging to a particular denomination.
[(6) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any economically weaker sections of citizens other than the classes mentioned in clause (4), in addition to the existing reservation and subject to a maximum of ten percent. of the posts in each category.]

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(5) Nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any law which provides that the incumbent of an office in connection with the affairs of any religious or denominational institution or any member of the governing body thereof shall be a person professing a particular religion or belonging to a particular denomination.
1[(6) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any economically weaker sections of citizens other than the classes mentioned in clause (4), in addition to the existing reservation and subject to a maximum of ten percent. of the posts in each category.]
17. Abolition of Untouchability.—“Untouchability” is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of “Untouchability” shall be an offense punishable in accordance with the law.
18. Abolition of titles.—(1) No title, not being a military or academic distinction, shall be conferred by the State.
(2) No citizen of India shall accept any title from any foreign State.
(3) No person who is not a citizen of India shall, while he holds any office of profit or trust under the State, accept without the consent of the President any title from any foreign State.
(4) No person holding any office of profit or trust under the State shall, without the consent of the President, accept any present, emolument, or office of any kind from or under any foreign State.

Right to Freedom

19. Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc.—
(1) All citizens shall have the right—
    (a) to freedom of speech and expression;
    (b) to assemble peaceably and without arms;
    (c) to form associations or unions 2[or co-operative societies];
    (d) to move freely throughout the territory of India;

    (e) to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India

    (g) to practice any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade, or business.

[(2) Nothing in sub-clause (a) of clause (1) shall affect the operation of any existing law, or prevent the State from making any law, in so far as such law imposes reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right conferred by the said sub-clause in the interests of 4[the sovereignty and integrity of India], the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offense.] 

(3) Nothing in sub-clause (b) of the said clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in so far as it imposes or prevent the State from making any law imposing, in the interests of [the sovereignty and integrity of India or] public order, reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right conferred by the said sub-clause.
(4) Nothing in sub-clause (c) of the said clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in so far as it imposes, or prevent the State from making any law imposing, in the interests of [the sovereignty and integrity of India or] public order or morality, reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right conferred by the said sub-clause.
(5) Nothing in 5[sub-clauses (d) and (e)] of the said clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in so far as it imposes or prevent the State from making any law imposing, reasonable restrictions on the exercise of any of the rights conferred by the said sub-clauses either in the interests of the general public or for the protection of the interests of any Scheduled Tribe

(6) Nothing in sub-clause (g) of the said clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in so far as it imposes, or prevent the State from making any law imposing, in the interests of the general public, reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right conferred by the said sub-clause, and, in particular, [nothing in the said sub-clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in
so far as it relates to, or prevents the State from making any law relating to,—

 (i) the professional or technical qualifications necessary for practicing any profession or carrying on any occupation, trade or business, or
(ii) the carrying on by the State, or by a corporation owned or controlled by the State, of any trade, business, industry, or service, whether to the exclusion, complete or partial, of citizens or otherwise.]

20. Protection in respect of conviction for offenses.—(1) No person shall be convicted of any offence except for violation of a law in force at the time of the commission of the Act charged as an offence, nor be subjected to a penalty greater than that which might have been inflicted under the law in force at the time of the commission of the offence.

(2) No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence

more than once.

(3) No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.

21. Protection of life and personal liberty.—No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.  

[21A. Right to education.—The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.]

22. Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.—(1) No person who is arrested shall be detained in custody without being informed, as soon as may be, of the grounds for such arrest nor shall he be denied the right to consult, and to be defended by, a legal practitioner of his choice.

(2) Every person who is arrested and detained in custody shall be produced before the nearest magistrate within a period of twenty-four hours of such arrest excluding the time necessary for the journey from the place of arrest to the court of the magistrate and no such person shall be detained in custody beyond the said period without the authority of a magistrate.
(3) Nothing in clauses (1) and (2) shall apply—
(a) to any person who for the time being is an enemy alien; or
(b) to any person who is arrested or detained under any law providing for preventive detention.
(4) No law providing for preventive detention shall authorize the detention of a person for a longer period than three months unless—
(a) an Advisory Board consisting of persons who are, or have been, or are qualified to be appointed as, Judges of a High Court has reported before the expiration of the said period of three months that there is in its opinion sufficient cause for such detention:- 

Provided that nothing in this sub-clause shall authorize the detention of any person beyond the maximum period prescribed by any law made by Parliament under sub-clause (b) of clause (7); or
(b) such a person is detained in accordance with the provisions of any law made by Parliament under sub-clauses (a) and (b) of clause (7).
(5) When any person is detained in pursuance of an order made under any law providing for preventive detention, the authority making the order shall, as soon as may be, communicate to such person the grounds on which the order has been made and shall afford him the earliest opportunity of making a representation against the order.
(6) Nothing in clause (5) shall require the authority making any such order as is referred to in that clause to disclose facts which such authority considers to be against the public interest to disclose.

(7) Parliament may by law prescribe—
(a) the circumstances under which, and the class or classes of cases in which, a person may be detained for a period longer than three months under any law providing for preventive detention without obtaining the opinion of an Advisory Board in accordance with the provisions of sub-
clause (a) of clause (4);
(b) the maximum period for which any person may in any class or classes of cases be detained under any law providing for preventive detention; and
(c) the procedure to be followed by an Advisory Board in an
inquiry under sub-clause (a) of clause (4).

Right against Exploitation

23. Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labor.—(1) Traffic in human beings and beggar and other similar forms of forced labor are prohibited and any contravention of this provision shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.

(2) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from imposing compulsory service for public purposes, and in imposing such service the State shall not make any discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste, class or any of them.

24. Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.—No child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment.

Right to Freedom of Religion

25. Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice, and propagation of religion.—(1) Subject to public order, morality, and health and to the other provisions of this Part, all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practice, and propagate religion.
(2) Nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any existing law or prevent the State from making any law—
(a) regulating or restricting any economic, financial, political, or other secular activity which may be associated with religious practice;
(b) providing for social welfare and reform or the throwing open of Hindu religious institutions of a public character to all classes and sections of Hindus.
Explanation I.—The wearing and carrying of kirpans shall be deemed to be included in the profession of the Sikh religion.
Explanation II.—In sub-clause (b) of clause (2), the reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina
or Buddhist religion and the reference to Hindu religious institutions shall be construed accordingly.
26. Freedom to manage religious affairs.—Subject to public order, morality, and health, every religious denomination or any section thereof shall have the right-

(a) to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes;
(b) to manage its own affairs in matters of religion;
(c) to own and acquire movable and immovable property; and
(d) to administer such property in accordance with the law.

27. Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.—No person shall be compelled to pay any taxes, the proceeds of which are specifically appropriated in payment of expenses for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious denomination.

28. Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions.—(1) No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly maintained out of State funds.
(2) Nothing in clause (1) shall apply to an educational institution that is administered by the State but has been established under any endowment or trust which requires that religious instruction shall be imparted in such
institution.
(3) No person attending any educational institution recognized by the State or receiving aid out of State funds shall be required to take part in any religious instruction that may be imparted in such institution or to attend any religious worship that may be conducted in such institution or in any premises attached thereto unless such person or, if such person is a minor, his guardian has given his consent thereto.

Cultural and Educational Rights

29. Protection of interests of minorities.—(1) Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script, or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.
(2) No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language, or any of them.

30. Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.—(1) All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.

[(1A) In making any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property of an educational institution established and administered by a minority, referred to in clause (1), the State shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for the acquisition of such property is such as would not restrict or abrogate the right guaranteed under that clause.]
(2) The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language.
31. [Compulsory acquisition of property.].—Omitted by the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978, s. 6 (w.e.f. 20-6-1979).

Saving of Certain Laws

[31A. Saving of laws providing for the acquisition of estates, etc. [(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in article 13, no law providing
for—
(a) the acquisition by the State of any estate or of any rights therein or the extinguishment or modification of any such rights, or
(b) the taking over of the management of any property by the State for a limited period either in the public interest or in order to secure the proper management of the property, or
(c) the amalgamation of two or more corporations either in the public interest or in order to secure the proper management of any of the corporations, or
(d) the extinguishment or modification of any rights of managing agents, secretaries and treasurers, managing directors, directors or managers of corporations, or of any voting rights of shareholders thereof, or (e) the extinguishment or modification of any rights accruing by virtue of any agreement, lease, or license for the purpose of searching for, or winning, any mineral or mineral oil, or the premature termination or cancellation of any such agreement, lease or license, shall be deemed to be void on the ground that it is inconsistent with, or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by [article 14 or article 19]: Provided that where such law is a law made by the Legislature of a State, the provisions of this article shall not apply thereto unless such law, having been reserved for the consideration of the President, has received his assent:]

[Provided further that where any law makes any provision for the acquisition by the State of any estate and where any land comprised therein is held by a person under his personal cultivation, it shall not be lawful for the State to acquire any portion of such land as is within the ceiling limit applicable to him under any law for the time being in force or any building or structure standing thereon or appurtenant thereto, unless the law relating to the acquisition of such land, building or structure, provides for payment of compensation at a rate which shall not be less than the market value thereof.]
(2) In this article,— [(a) the expression “estate” shall, in relation to any local area, have the same meaning as that expression or its local equivalent has in the existing law relating to land tenures in force in that area and shall also include—
(i) any jagir, inam or muafi or other similar grant and in the States
of 4[Tamil Nadu] and Kerala, any janmam right;
(ii) any land held under ryotwari settlement;
(iii) any land held or let for purposes of agriculture or for
purposes ancillary thereto, including waste land, forest land, land for

pasture or sites of buildings and other structures occupied by cultivators of land, agricultural laborers, and village artisans;]
(b) the expression “rights”, in relation to an estate, shall include any rights vesting in a proprietor, sub-proprietor, under-proprietor, tenure-holder, 1[raiyat, under-raiyat] or other intermediary and any rights or privileges in respect of land revenue.]
 [31B. Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.—Without prejudice to the generality of the provisions contained in article 31A, none of the Acts and Regulations specified in the Ninth Schedule nor any of the provisions thereof shall be deemed to be void, or ever to have become void, on the ground that such Act, Regulation or provision is inconsistent with, or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by, any provisions of this Part, and notwithstanding any judgment, decree or order of any court or Tribunal to the contrary, each of the said Acts and Regulations shall, subject to the power of any competent Legislature to repeal or amend it, continue in force.]

[31C. Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive principles.— Notwithstanding anything contained in article 13, no law giving effect to the policy of the State towards securing 4[all or any of the principles laid down in Part IV] shall be deemed to be void on the ground that it is inconsistent with, or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by 5[article 14 or article 19;] [and no law containing a declaration that it is for giving effect to such policy shall be called in question in any court on the ground that it does not give effect to such policy]: Provided that where such law is made by the Legislature of a State, the provisions of this article shall not apply thereto unless such law, having been reserved for the consideration of the President, has received his assent.

31D. [Saving of laws in respect of anti-national activities.].—Omitted by the Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act,1977, s. 2 (w.e.f.13-4-1978).

Right to Constitutional Remedies

32. Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by this Part.—(1) The right to move the Supreme Court by appropriate proceedings for the enforcement of the rights conferred by this Part is guaranteed.
(2) The Supreme Court shall have the power to issue directions or orders or writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto, and certiorari, whichever may be appropriate, for the enforcement of any of the rights conferred by this Part.
(3) Without prejudice to the powers conferred on the Supreme Court by clauses (1) and (2), Parliament may by law empower any other court to exercise within the local limits of its jurisdiction all or any of the powers exercisable by the Supreme Court under clause (2).
(4) The right guaranteed by this article shall not be suspended except as otherwise provided for by this Constitution.
32A. [Constitutional validity of State laws not to be considered in proceedings under article 32.].—Omitted by the Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act, 1977, s. 3 (w.e.f. 13-4-1978).

33. Power of Parliament to modify the rights conferred by this Part in their application to Forces, etc.—Parliament may, by law, determine to what extent any of the rights conferred by this Part shall, in their application to,—
(a) the members of the Armed Forces; or
(b) the members of the Forces charged with the maintenance of public order; or
(c) persons employed in any bureau or other organization established by the State for purposes of intelligence or counter intelligence; or
(d) the person employed in, or in connection with, the telecommunication systems set up for the purposes of any Force, bureau, or organization referred to in clauses (a) to (c), be restricted or abrogated so as to ensure the proper discharge of their duties and the maintenance of discipline among them.

34. Restriction on rights conferred by this Part while martial law is in force in any area.—Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of this Part, Parliament may by law indemnify any person in the service of the Union or of a State or any other person in respect of any act done by him in connection with the maintenance or restoration of order in any area within the territory of India where martial law was in force or validate any sentence passed, the punishment inflicted, forfeiture ordered or other act done under martial law in such area.
35. Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this Part.— Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution,—
(a) Parliament shall have, and the Legislature of a State shall not have, power to make laws—
(i) with respect to any of the matters which under clause (3) of Article 16, clause (3) of Article 32, article 33, and article 34 may be provided for by law made by Parliament; and
(ii) for prescribing punishment for those acts which are declared to be offenses under this Part,
and Parliament shall, as soon as may be after the commencement of this Constitution, make laws for prescribing punishment for the acts referred to in sub-clause (ii);
(b) any law in force immediately before the commencement of this Constitution in the territory of India with respect to any of the matters referred to in sub-clause (i) of clause (a) or providing for punishment for any act referred to in sub-clause (ii) of that clause shall, subject to the terms thereof and to any adaptations and modifications that may be made therein under article 372, continue in force until altered or repealed or amended by Parliament. 

Explanation.—In this article, the expression "law in force'' has the same meaning as in article 372.

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